Part II
Governmental Powers
Introduction
Each society needs common rules and mechanisms for their production. The concept of legislation is indeed central to all modern societies. It refers to the making of laws (legis).
But what is ‘legislation’? Two competing conceptions of legislation have emerged in modern constitutional thought. A parliamentary or procedural conception of legislation is tied to our modern understanding of who should be in charge of the legislative function. Legislation is here formally defined as every legal act adopted according to the (parliamentary) legislative procedure. This procedural conception of legislation has traditionally shaped British constitutional thought. By contrast, a second conception defines what legislation should be, that is: legal rules with general application. This material or functional conception of legislation has shaped continental constitutional thought. A material definition of legislation underpins phrases like ‘delegated legislation’ adopted by the executive.
Which of these traditions has informed European constitutionalism? The Union has traditionally followed a material definition. However, with the Lisbon Treaty, a formal definition of legislative power has now been adopted. The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union constitutionally defines:
Legal acts adopted by legislative procedure shall constitute legislative acts.
But what are the ‘legislative’ powers of the European Union? And what types of procedures are legislative procedures? This chapter answers these questions in four sections. Section 1 analyses the scope of the Union’s legislative competences. This scope is limited, as the Union is not a sovereign State. Section 2 analyses the different categories of Union competences. Depending on what competence category is involved, the Union will enjoy distinct degrees of legislative power. Section 3 analyses the identity of the Union legislator. Various legislative procedures thereby determine how the Union must exercise its ‘legislative’ competences. Section 4 finally scrutinises the principle of subsidiarity as a constitutional principle that controls the exercise of the Union’s shared legislative powers.
Cases
Legislation
EU Regulations
Regulation (EEC) No. 1612/68 of the Council of 15 October 1968 on freedom of movement for workers within the Community, [1968] OJ English Special Edition 475
Council Regulation (EEC) No. 1768/92 of 18 June 1992 concerning the creation of a supplementary protection certificate for medicinal products, [1992] OJ L 182/1
Council Regulation (EC) No. 1/2003 of 16 December 2002 on the implementation of the rules on competition laid down in Articles 81 and 82 of the Treaty, [2003] OJ L 1/1
EU Directives
Council Directive 91/689/EEC of 12 December 1991 on hazardous waste, [1991] OJ L 377/20
Council Directive 93/104/EC of 23 November 1993 concerning certain aspects of the organization of working time, [1993] OJ L 307/18 (First Working Time Directive)
Directive 98/43/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 1998 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States relating to the advertising and sponsorship of tobacco products, [1998] OJ L 213/9 (Tobacco Advertising Directive)
Figures
Extra Materials
Useful Videos
Useful websites
Further Reading
Books
L. Azoulai (ed.), The Question of Competence in the European Union (Oxford University Press, 2014)
S. Garben and I. Govaere, The Division of Competences between the EU and the Member States: Reflections on the Past, the Present, and the Future (Hart, 2017)
K. Granat, The Principle of Subsidiarity and Its Enforcement in the EU Legal Order (Hart, 2018)
S. Hix and B. Høyland, The Political System of the European Union (Palgrave, 2005)
B. Kohler-Koch and B. Rittberger, Debating the Democratic Legitimacy of the European Union (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007)
N. Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union (Palgrave, 2017)
R. Schütze, From Dual to Cooperative Federalism: The Changing Structure of European Law (Oxford University Press 2009)
Articles
P. Craig, ‘Competence: Clarity, Conferral, Containment and Consideration’ (2004) 29 EL Rev. 323
A. Dashwood, ‘The Limits of European Community Powers’ (1996) 21 EL Rev. 113
G. Davies, ‘Subsidiarity: The Wrong Idea, in the Wrong Place, at the Wrong Time’ (2006) 43 CML Rev 63
M. Huysmans et al., ‘Subsidiarity Ex Ante and Ex Post: From the Early Warning System to the Court of Justice of the European Union’ (2024) 62 Journal of Common Market Studies 744
D. Jancic, ‘The Game of Cards: National Parliaments in the EU and the Future of the Early Warning Mechanism and the Political Dialogue’ (2015) 52 CML Rev. 939
T. Konstadinides, ‘Drawing the Line between Circumvention and Gap-filling: An Exploration of the Conceptual Limits of the Treaty’s Flexibility Clause’ (2012) 31 YEL 227
C. Reh et al., ‘The Informal Politics of Legislation: Explaining Secluded Decision Making in the European Union’ (2013) 49 Comparative Political Studies 1112
C. Roederer-Rynning and J. Greenwood, ‘The Cutlure of Trilogues’ (2015) 22 Journal of European Public Policy 1148
R. de Ruiter and C. Neuhold, ‘Why Is Fast Track the Way to Go? Justification for Early Agreement in the Co-decision Procedure and their Effects’ (2012) 18 ELJ 536
R. Schütze, ‘Lisbon and the Federal Order of Competences: A Prospective Analysis’ (2008) 33 EL Rev 709
A. Tizzano, ‘The Powers of the Community’, in Commission (ed.), Thirty Years of Community Law (Office for Official Publications of the EC, 1981) 43
S. Weatherill, ‘Competence Creep and Competence Control’ (2004) 23 YEL 1
D. Wyatt, ‘Community Competence to Regulate the Internal Market’ (Oxford University Faculty of Law Research Paper 9/2007)
How to Find (and Read) the EU Treaties
The EU Treaties constitute the primary law of the Union. The formula the ‘EU Treaties’ or simply ‘the Treaties’ commonly refers to two Treaties: the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU).
The ‘Treaties’ are the result of a long ‘chain novel’ of consecutive treaties (see Table 20.1). They started out from three ‘Founding Treaties’ that created the European Coal and Steel Community (1951), the European Atomic Energy Community (1957) and the European (Economic) Community (1957). A myriad of subsequent ‘Amendment Treaties’ and ‘Accession Treaties’ gradually changed the textual basis of the three Communities significantly; and this first treaty base would be complemented by a second treaty base in 1992, when the Maastricht Treaty created the (old) European Union.
To simplify the – very complex – textual foundations of the old European Union and European Communities Treaties, the Member States tried to create a single treaty in the early 2000s. The 2004 Constitutional Treaty was indeed intended to repeal all previous treaties; and it was to merge the European Union with the European Communities. Yet the attempt to ‘recreate’ one Union, with one legal personality, on the basis of one treaty failed; and the Member States thereafter resorted to yet another ‘Amendment Treaty’: the 2007 Reform Treaty – also called the Lisbon Treaty.
Despite its modest name, the Lisbon Treaty constitutes a radical new ‘chapter’ in the Union’s constitutional chain novel. For while it formally builds on the original ‘Founding Treaties’, it has nonetheless ‘merged’ the old ‘Community’ legal order with the old ‘Union’ legal order into a new ‘Union’ legal order.
Nevertheless, unlike the 2004 Constitutional Treaty, the 2007 Lisbon Treaty has not created a single treaty base for the European Union. Instead, it recognises the existence of two (main) treaties: the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. The division into two EU Treaties thereby follows a functional criterion: the Treaty on European Union (TEU) contains the general provisions defining the Union, while the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) contains the specific provisions with regard to the Union institutions and policies. One of the new features of the post-Lisbon era is the possibility of minor treaty amendments instigated by European Council Decisions.
In addition to ‘Amendment Treaties’ there are now also ‘Amendment Decisions’ adopted by the European Council (see Table 21.4). The EU Treaties can today be found on the European Union’s
EUR-Lex website: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/collection/eu-law/treaties.html, but there are also a number of solid paper copies such as Blackstone’s EU Treaties & Legislation or my own EU Treaties and Legislation collection. What is the structure of today’s EU Treaties? The structure of the TEU and TFEU is shown in Table 20.4. The (longer) TFEU is divided into ‘Parts’ – ‘Titles’ – ‘Chapters’ – ‘Sections’ –‘Articles’, while the (shorter) TEU only starts with a division into ‘Titles’. The EU Treaties are joined by numerous Protocols and the ‘Charter of Fundamental Rights’. According to Article 51 TEU, Protocols to the Treaties ‘shall form an integral part thereof’; and the best way to make sense of them is to see them as legally binding ‘footnotes’ to a particular article or section of the Treaties.
By contrast, the Charter is ‘external’ to the Treaties; yet it also has ‘the same legal value as the Treaties’.
How to Find (and Read) EU Secondary Law
The Union publishes all of its acts in the Official Journal of the European Union. Paper versions can be found in every library that houses a ‘European Documentation Centre’, but electronic versions are also openly available on the Union’s EUR-Lex website: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/oj/direct-access.html. The Union distinguishes between two Official Journal series: the L-series and the C-series. The former contains all legally binding acts adopted by the Union (including its international agreements), while the latter publishes all other information and notices. Originally, only the paper version of the Official Journal was ‘authentic’; but since 1 July 2013, electronic versions of the Official Journal (e-OJ) are equally authentic and therefore endowed with formal legal force.
Union secondary law will first mention the instrument in which it is adopted. It will typically have the form of a ‘Regulation’, a ‘Directive’ or a ‘Decision’. This will be followed by two figures. In the past, where the Union act was a regulation, the figure was: number/year; while for directives and decisions this was inversed: year/number. However, since 2015, this has changed and all main Union instruments are now arranged by year/number.treaty base would be complemented by a second treaty base in 1992, when the Maastricht Treaty created the (old) European Union.
Where the year and number are known for a given EU act, the easiest way to find it is to use the Union’s EU-lex search engine: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/homepage.html. Importantly, there may be two or more acts for a given number combination, especially where a ‘legislative’ act has been followed by a non-legislative act. For two types of non-legislative acts – namely: ‘delegated’ and ‘implementing’ acts – the EU Treaties require that they contain the word ‘delegated’ or ‘implementing’ in their title. This is to indicate – at first glance – that these executive acts have been adopted according to a particular decision-making procedure. States thereafter resorted to yet another ‘Amendment Treaty’: the 2007 Reform Treaty – also called the Lisbon Treaty.
What is the structure of a piece of Union legislation? After its ‘Title’ there follows a brief summary of the decision-making procedure that led to the adoption of the act – including a reference to the legal competence on which it was based. Thereafter comes the ‘Preamble’, which sets out the reasons for which the Union act has been adopted. The content of the act is subsequently set out in various ‘articles’, which may be grouped into ‘Sections’ and ‘Chapters’. For very technical Union legislation, there may also be an Annex – which, like a ‘Schedule’ in a UK statute, adds detailed provisions ‘outside’ the core content of the act. To illustrate this legislative structure, let us take a closer look at the Services Directive as it would be published in the Official Journal.
How to Find (and Read) EU Court Judgments
All EU cases are identified by a number/year figure. Cases before the Court of Justice are preceded by a C-, while cases decided before the General Court are preceded by a T-( for the French ‘Tribunal’).7 The Civil Service Tribunal prefixed its cases with an F-( for the French ‘Fonction publique’). Following this unique figure come the names of the parties to the case. A full case name would for example be: Case C-144/ 04, Werner Mangold v. Rüdiger Helm. However, since no one can remember all the numbers or all the parties, EU cases often get simply abbreviated by the main party; in our case Mangold.
In the past, judgments of all EU Courts were published in paper form in the purple-bound European Court Reports (ECR). Cases decided by the Court of Justice were published in the ECR-I series; cases decided by the General Court were published in the ECR-II series, while cases decided by the Civil Service Tribunal were published in the ECR-SC series. However, as of 2012, the entire Court of Justice of the European Union decided to go ‘paperless’ and it now publishes its judgments only electronically.8 The two principal websites here are the Court’s own curia website (http://curia.europa.eu/jcms/jcms/j_6), and the Union’s general EUR-Lex website (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/homepage.html). For the purposes of this book, the easiest way is however to go to www.schutze.eu, which contains all the judgments mentioned in the main text – including the ‘Lisbon’ version of all classic EU Court judgments.
Once upon a time, judgments issued by the European Court were – to paraphrase Hobbes –‘nasty, brutish and short’. Their shortness was partly due to a structural division the Court made between the ‘Issues of Fact and of Law’ (or later: ‘Report for the Hearing’), which set out the facts, procedure and the arguments of the parties, on the one hand, and the ‘Grounds of Judgment’ on the other. Only the latter constituted the judgment sensu stricto and was often very short indeed. For the Court originally followed the ‘French’ ideal of trying to put the entire judgment into a single ‘sentence’! A judgment like Van Gend en Loos contains about 2,000 words – not more than an undergraduate essay.
This world of short judgments is – sadly or not – gone. A typical judgment issued today will, on average, be four to five times as long as Van Gend. (And in the worst-case scenario, a judgment, especially in the area of EU competition law, may be as long as 100,000 words – a book of about 300 pages!) This new comprehensiveness is perhaps the product of a more refined textualist methodology, but it also results from a change in the organisation and style of judgments. Modern judgments have come to integrate much of the facts and the parties’ arguments into the main body of a ‘single’ judgment, and this has especially made many direct actions much longer and much more repetitive! The structure of a modern ECJ judgment given under the preliminary reference procedure may be studied by looking at Figure 20.2.
How to Find EU Academic Resources
The literature with regard to European Union law has exploded in the last 30 years. Today, there exists a forest of European law journals and generalist textbooks. Moreover, since the mid 1990s ‘European’ law has increasingly developed specialised branches that are sometimes even taught separately at university (as is the case at my own university). The three main branches here are: European constitutional law, European internal market law and European competition law. The first was explored in Parts I and II, while the second branch (and elements of the third branch) were covered in Part III. In addition to these three ‘bigger’ branches, the last two decades have also seen the emergence of many ‘smaller’ branches, such as European external relations law, European labour law and European environmental law. And there now also exist specialised LLM courses on EU consumer law and EU tax law.
The list of journals (Table 21.5) is by no means comprehensive. It is meant to point the interested reader to a first gateway for an in-depth study of a particular part of European Union law. My selection focuses primarily on English-language academic sources. But it goes without saying that European Union law is a ‘European’ subject with journals and textbooks in every language of the Union.
